Dr. ASLI VAROL
The US arms support to Greece, the sale of F-16 jets, the establishment
of a naval base in Alexandroupoli and the lifting of the embargoes against the
Greek Cypriot Administration led to further strained relations between Turkey
and Greece. Recently, the allegations that Greece had “radar lock”
on Turkish jets performing mission flights in the Aegean and Eastern
Mediterranean with the Russian-made S-300 Air Defense System increased the
tensions. Turkey accused Greece of
harassing F-16 jets using S-300 air defense systems stationed in Crete, while
Greece denied the allegations. While the
tension between the two neighboring countries did not decrease, Turkey and
Greece mutually complained to each other to the European Union, the United
Nations and NATO.
Sport as a Diplomatic Tool
Diplomacy
is the main tool for implementing national foreign policy during peacetime.
Moreover, diplomacy is a tool that can be used to communicate during conflict. The key features of diplomacy are communication and
representation. Diplomacy is established as the first step to prevent or
resolve conflicts. And also, diplomacy aids negotiations; protects citizens and
other interests abroad; promotes economic, social, cultural and scientific
exchange between states and governs foreign policy decisions (Trunkos & Heere, 2017: 3).
The potential of sports diplomacy in the modern diplomatic environment is vast. Murray states that for sports diplomacy to become a regular, sustainable and meaningful feature of modern diplomacy, a dialogue must be initiated between theorists and practitioners in both fields (Murray, 2013: 12).
Treating
sports as a diplomacy platform, Trunkos and Heere list the most common
strategic goals as follows (Trunkos & Heere, 2017: 5-6):
“(a) providing an unofficial reason and location for international
leaders to meet and begin a dialogue; (b) providing insights into the host
country and educating others about it; (c) bridging cultural and linguistic
differences among nations and seeking common ground through sports; (d)
creating a platform for new trade agreements or legislation; (e) creating
awareness for the international relationship through sport ambassadors; (f)
creating a legacy for the host country, improving its image in the world; and
(g) using sport to provide legitimacy for a new nation.”
Sports have various
functions in the field of diplomacy. It is clearly seen that sports have
important duties in building and preserving peace. Sports
diplomacy can go beyond the bridges established by official authorities and
lead to the convergence of peoples. On the other
hand, sport offers the opportunity to build a positive image and a strong
reputation for both countries and political leaders in international
communication.
Sport provides
an informal reason and place for international leaders to come together and
initiate dialogue. Sport gives insight into the host country and educates
others about it. Sports are used to bridge cultural and linguistic
differences between nations. Sports can be
used to create a platform for new legislation or trade deals. Sports can be
used to raise awareness in international relations through sports ambassadors. Sporting events can be used to create a legacy for the
host country and improve its image in the world. Sport can be used to provide
legitimacy for a new nation (Trunkos & Heere, 2017).
In a
pluralistic, modern diplomatic environment, sport is a powerful soft power tool
to positively attract “others” to the characteristics of the host country. Murray
divides sports diplomacy into two categories, traditional sports diplomacy and
a “new” networked sports diplomacy 2.0. Traditional sports diplomacy is
sometimes used by governments to achieve foreign policy goals. Mega sport events offer multiple public diplomacy
opportunities. Sporting events can create leadership summit opportunities
for engagement beyond established foreign policy positions. Sports diplomacy 2.0 programs also emphasize
government partnerships with non-state actors such as NGOs, IGOs, athletes and
companies. In the twenty-first century, sports regimes, clubs, and individual
celebrities can be thought of as powerful, non-state diplomatic actors. More
and more states are implementing sports diplomacy 2.0 programs. Due to the rise
of global terrorism, financial crises, overpopulation and resource scarcity,
sports exchanges between nations, states and peoples should be encouraged
(Murray, 2016).
The increasing
interest of countries in sports diplomacy should not reduce sports diplomacy
only to sports organizations. Sports diplomacy
should deal with sports with various studies in line with diplomatic purposes.
In this context, Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia serve as appropriate
examples. In Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia, the importance of sport and
its use as an appropriate tool have been recognized by government officials. This can lead to a state's reputation in the
international system. In this environment, the first scholarly articles and
books focusing specifically on the general introduction to sports diplomacy
were published by Polish, Czech and Slovak scholars. Likewise, the first
conferences, workshops and summer schools were organized in Central European
universities (Zákravský,
Kobierecki, Štulajter,
2021: 412).
The History of Sports
Diplomacy Dates Back to Antiquity
It is seen that sports diplomacy has an
important place in addition to ad-hoc diplomacy, multilateral diplomacy and
open diplomacy in ancient times. In this sense, Murray expresses the importance
given to sports in the field of politics in Antiquity as follows (Murray, 2013:
12):
“Since antiquity, international sports has provided a symbolic arena for
polities to demonstrate various types of superiority from athletic prowess to
the ideology of a particular system of state. Well aware of the reach and power
of the opiate of the masses, governments have long been drawn toward sports and
sporting festivals.”
Sports Diplomacy and Relationship Management
Sports diplomacy is associated with governments whose aim is to reinforce a diplomatic message through athletes. However, sports diplomacy is associated with states that use sporting events to improve their image among global peoples, reduce tensions in diplomatic relations, or test the ground for a policy change. Because sports diplomacy transcends cultural differences and creates opportunities for alternative ways to overcome hostilities, formal dialogue and human-human relations. In short, sports diplomacy unites separate nations with a love of sports (Murray, 2013: 12). It should always be considered that sport improves relations and has a mediating function. Because the facts that sport serve peaceful purposes will also prevent extremist groups from damaging inter-communal relations.
More and more diplomatic institutions are turning to sports. Trunkos and Heere state that there are four reasons for this. First, sports and athletes can strengthen and complement a nation-state's diplomacy. For example, China's re-emergence and acceptance into the international community since the early 1970s has been closely linked to international sports. The most famous example of this is when a series of favorable encounters between Chinese and American ping-pong players led to China’s reclaiming its seat on the United Nations Security Council, Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China, and the normalization of Sino-US diplomatic relations. This event is called “ping-pong diplomacy” in the diplomatic literature. Second, mega sport events can offer important public diplomacy opportunities to the host country. The right to host such an event is a confirmation of good international citizenship. In this case, if the diplomatic stance, image and message are formed appropriately and harmonized with positive sporting values, it is possible to reach and establish closeness to a large foreign public community. Third, sport is no longer a niche or insignificant institution under governments. Fourth, sports diplomacy gives governments considerable flexibility in testing the strengths or weaknesses of a diplomatic relationship beyond official policy positions (Trunkos & Heere, 2017).
In sports diplomacy, it is necessary to take advantage of the opportunities offered by information and communication technologies in order to manage the relations between countries and societies. In this sense, sports diplomacy 2.0 should be strengthened. In addition, the development of relations between countries can be achieved through “sport ambassadors”. Sports ambassadors can be employed to contribute to the reputation of both their home country and the country of the institution they are athletes of. For this reason, “sport ambassadors” should be selected from all sports institutions of a country, regardless of whether they are amateur or professional.
Sports Diplomacy Must Be Strengthened Between Turkey
and Greece
There are
various sports events that sports diplomacy works to reduce tensions between
countries. For example, “cricket diplomacy” between Pakistan and
India had been a step towards easing tensions between the two countries. After years of acrimony, suspicion and close war
caused by nuclear weapons, the Kashmir crises and the scourge of terrorism, in
March 2011, Pakistani Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gilani accepted an invitation
from his Indian counterpart, Manmohan Singh, to watch the semi-final match of
the Cricket World Cup (Murray, 2012).
It is possible
to reduce the tension that rises from time to time between Turkey and Greece
through sports diplomacy. In fact, the people of the two countries share the
same history and the same culture. Although there is a political and military
disagreement between Turkey and Greece, there is a cultural bond that will
never break. In this context, it may be beneficial to organize friendly matches
with female athletes and women’s sports teams in Istanbul and Athens in this
period when relations are tense. It is necessary
for the presidents of the countries and the presidents of the sports clubs to
watch these matches together, in order to stay away from the corrosive
political discussions. Moreover, it should be accepted that the Aegean Sea and
the Aegean Islands are the common heritage of Turkey and Greece, and that
culture and tourism issues should be discussed instead of arming.
References
Allen, Douglas W., Lantinova, Vera (2013): “The ancient olympics as a signal
of city-state strength”, Economics of
Governance, Volume 14, 23-44, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10101-012-0119-5.
Murray, Stuart (2012): “Commentary: The Two Halves of Sports-Diplomacy”, Diplomacy
& Statecraft, 23: 576-592, DOI: 10.1080/09592296.2012.706544.
Murray, Stuart (2013): Moving beyond the Ping-Pong table: Sports diplomacy in the moderndiplomatic environment, PD Magazine, Winter 2013, 11-16.
Murray, Stuart (2016): “Sports Diplomacy”, The SAGE Handbook of Diplomacy, Ed. Costas M. Constantinou, Pauline Kerr, Paul Sharp, SAGE Publications, London, 617-627.
Trunkos,
Judit, Bob Heere (2017): “Sport Diplomacy:
A Review of How Sports Can Be Used to Improve International Relationships”, Case Studies in Sport Diplomacy, Ed. by
Craig Esherick, Robert E. Baker, Steven
Jackson, Michael Sam, West Virginia University, FiT Publishing, 1-16.
Zákravský, Jiří, Michał Marcin Kobierecki,Ivan Štulajter (2021): “Sports Diplomacy Research in Poland, Czechia and Slovakia. Emerging Field of Study?”, Politics in Central Europe, Vol. 17, No. 3, 399-419, DOI: 10.2478/pce-2021-0017.
