The U.S. Department of State Data Informed Diplomacy Strategy

Dr. ASLI VAROL

Protecting the United States and Americans; advancing democracy, human rights, and other global interests; promoting international understanding of American values and policies; and supporting U.S. diplomats, government officials, and all other personnel at home and abroad who make these goals a reality are the four main foreign policy goals of the U.S. Department of State (Bureau of Public Affairs, 2008). The U.S. seeks for ways to make more use of big data in diplomacy in order to be able to claim these goals more strongly. In the context of the meaning that the US attaches to data in foreign policy, U.S. Deputy Secretary of State for Management and Resources Brian P. McKeon emphasizes that (U.S. Department of State, 2021: 4):  

      “To lead America’s foreign policy in the 21st century, we must be fully prepared for the challenges, both seen and unseen, that lie before us. As the leader of our country’s response to these challenges, the Department of State must leverage data as a critical instrument of diplomacy. When our foreign affairs professionals are equipped with high-quality and timely data, we can help make the world safer, more just, and less divided.”

 “Data is the new oil”

In 2006, British mathematician Clive Humby summed up the importance of data and its benefits in the new economy by saying “Data is the new oil”. Today, data is seen as a critical resource of modern society. Huge amounts of data are generated every day through electronic devices and the Internet. The private sector benefits from the big data sources to improve their products and services, streamline procedures, and ultimately increase revenues. Because it is said that big data analytics create insights that didn't exist before. On the other hand, some foreign ministries and international organizations are exploring the uses of big data for policy planning, information management, development, humanitarian aid and emergency response. These institutions have realized the benefits of big data analysis (Jacobson, Höne, Kurbalija, 2018: 4).

Information is at the center of international relations. International alliances are formed or broken down by the information available and who controls it. The data has brought more light and transparency to the work of diplomats, which is characterized by an unprecedented level of confidentiality and privacy in the conduct of diplomacy. Ndoumbe states that due to the democratization of diplomacy, many public diplomacy researchers argue that diplomats should switch from one-way communication to a two-way communication model in order to be more effective. This view was first adopted by the US government and later it was seen that African governments also joined this path (Ndoumbe, 2022).

Being data-driven means that decision-making relies on the collection and analysis of data. In this context, transforming an existing organization into a data-driven one is often motivated by a desire to make better decisions, such as improving the quality of a service or product and improving internal workflows that lead to greater success of the organization. The focus on specific data types and big data is determined by the type of organization and its ultimate goals (Jacobson, Höne, Kurbalija, 2018: 42).

Data Science and American Foreign Policy

Jeffrey Stanton makes the following statement about data science in his 2013 book titled “An Introduction to Data Science” (Stanton, 2013: ii):

          “Data Science refers to an emerging area of work concerned with the collection, preparation, analysis, visualization, management, and preservation of large collections of information. Although the name Data Science seems to connect most strongly with areas such as  databases and computer science, many different kinds of skills - including non-mathematical skills - are needed.”

According to Jacobson, Höne and Kurbalija, big data based on previously unavailable sources can challenge prejudices, validate information and provide new insights for diplomacy. Big data can lead to a better-informed foreign policy that is free from the assumptions of individual decision makers and contains the vast amount of information available from online sources, texts and sensors (Jacobson, Höne, Kurbalija, 2018: 65). 

The U.S. Department of State is also integrating big data analysis into foreign policy and tries to strengthen data informed diplomacy. In this context, in September 2021, the U.S. Department of State has published a strategy document titled “Enterprise Data Strategy Empowering Data Informed Diplomacy”. This initiative is described by the Department as a milestone in its transformation into a more data-centric organization. “Enterprise Data Strategy” aims ensure that the Department’s workforce is equipped with the timely, data-driven insights needed to make key mission and management decisions (U.S. Department of State, 2021). 

Tsvetkova and Kuznetsov state that authoritative scholars and experts from the United States have a common stance on the definition of data diplomacy. Data diplomacy is seen as a new stage in the development of digital diplomacy. Data diplomacy; incorporating elements of data science, social sciences and international relations, it provides new opportunities for governments to achieve results in domestic and foreign policy, diplomatic and consular services, cybersecurity and technological progress through the results of big data analysis of social networks and other Internet resources. However, data diplomacy can both bring states together to solve common humanitarian problems and divide them with discrediting and destructive activities on the Internet. Experts say that the main method of data diplomacy is the collection and analysis of “big” and “small” data from social networks, blogs and other Web resources. Accordingly, the main functions of data diplomacy are increasing the effectiveness of digital diplomacy projects; using data for information confrontation on the Internet; humanitarian cooperation; simplification of diplomatic and consular service (Tsvetkova & Kuznetsov, 2020: 40-41).

American experts express the following about foreign policy threats to U.S. cybersecurity due to the development of data diplomacy and the use of collecting and analyzing big data from social networks (Tsvetkova & Kuznetsov, 2020: 41):

1) China is emerging as a world leader in AI, contributing to the creation of new technologies to enhance its military potential.

2) There are subversive activities such as information attacks from Russia, China, Iran and terrorist groups.

3) Lack of international laws on the legitimacy of information operations and codes of conduct in cyberspace.

However, American experts point out the following among the problems related to the development of artificial intelligence and data diplomacy (Tsvetkova & Kuznetsov, 2020: 41):

1) The inability of diplomats to work with big data.

2) Humanitarian students need vocational training in the fundamentals of working with big data analytics.

3) Young professionals are uninterested in the analysis of US foreign policy activity.

Tsvetkova and Kuznetsov emphasize that although serious problems are expressed in the field of cybersecurity, the American expert community positively evaluates the development of an aspect such as big data diplomacy. Because it is accepted that data diplomacy is beneficial for the development of both U.S. foreign policy and the entire international relations system (Tsvetkova & Kuznetsov, 2020: 41). 

Data Diplomacy 

Data diplomacy is defined as a new international relations phenomenon that reflects the importance of digital data in the foreign policy mechanism of modern states (Kuznetsov & Tsvetkova, 2022: 37). At the “American Association for the Advancement of Science Conference” in 2015, Timothy Dye defined data diplomacy as (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2015):

 

“Data diplomacy is an emerging construct that integrates concepts from data science, technology, and computing with social science, international relations, and diplomatic negotiation, and in some cases, offers a new diplomatic tool that facilitates global (and local) relationships.” 

Marcotte states that data diplomacy aims to better understand the role that data sharing plays as a mediator in social and political relations around the world (Marcotte, 2016). Jacobson, Höne, Kurbalija state that big data interacts with diplomacy in three ways. First, big data can be used as a tool to make diplomacy more efficient, effective and inclusive. Second, it provides a new topic on the diplomatic agenda and takes part in international negotiations in areas such as cross-border privacy, e-commerce and international cybersecurity. Third, it acts as a factor that changes the environment in which diplomacy operates, potentially changing geopolitical and geo-economic positions (Jacobson, Höne, Kurbalija, 2018: 4).

Big data has the potential to contribute to insights and make certain processes more effective and efficient in information gathering and diplomatic reporting, negotiation, communication, and public diplomacy and consular affairs, which are the core functions of diplomacy. However, the relevance of big data in this field largely depends on the extent to which these processes are driven by human qualities such as interpersonal relationships, empathy, experience and expert knowledge (Jacobson, Höne, Kurbalija, 2018: 37). 

Boyd et al. emphasize that when thinking about data, it is necessary to accept that it is its creators, subjects, managers and owners. Data may be public or private, may be copied and modified, shared or not shared, used or not. On the other hand, the use of data can lead to benefits or harms, advantages or disadvantages and can have an impact at the individual, institutional, governmental or global level. In other words, data can be a tool that accelerates, directs, or otherwise blocks change. It follows, therefore, that the concept of data diplomacy will relate to a wide range of interactions between data and diplomats, as well as diplomatic principles, practices, and objectives. As we develop measures to secure and protect the public, the need for a new class of data diplomats who can streamline data-driven processes will also increase. However, recognizing that data diplomacy is a separate category will enable us to recognize its expanding role in society and the potential good or bad it can bring (Boyd et al., 2019). 

Data diplomacy is an interdisciplinary field that addresses the role of diplomacy and negotiation in accessing and sharing information, and the impact of knowledge on discretionary links between nation states and other international actors (intergovernmental organizations, NGOs, public figures, etc.). In recent years, data has gained importance in the conduct and implementation of global diplomacy, and over time it is on the agenda, among other key issues such as peace and security, development, climate change. For this reason, data is now considered an important tool used in consular affairs, soft power and public diplomacy, and strategic alliance building. Data diplomacy initiatives are positively described by practitioners. Thus, data diplomacy is needed to address social and global challenges more directly. The fact that data brings with it many opportunities has made it possible to define data as the new oil of the modern economy. Data is a collection of processed information. Data is the raw material, and diplomats are the processors of this material, which turns it into a finished “product” useful for strategic decision making and foreign policy choices. In their daily work, they collect, analyze and transmit data and information (Ndoumbe, 2022).

“Data” is a Strategic Asset for the U.S. Department of State 

The U.S. Department of State states that it is aware of the fact that the pace of American diplomacy has to keep up with the ever-changing geopolitical pace, and expresses the importance of using data to achieve foreign policy goals as follows (U.S. Department of State, 2021: 5):

         “We have the most advanced diplomatic corps in the world, and it is imperative that we match the excellence of our global workforce with excellence in our data-driven insights. Advanced analysis must act in support of diplomacy, putting evidence-based insights at our professionals' fingertips to help them achieve their mission. Likewise, to streamline the delivery of our operations, we must use data to provide enabling services more nimbly and expeditiously.” 

The Department of State declares its Data Vision in “Enterprise Data Strategy Empowering Data Informed Diplomacy” as (U.S. Department of State, 2022: 10):

 

“Data is a critical instrument of diplomacy, the Department’s global workforce is empowered with the skills and tools to derive actionable mission insights from data, and its data assets are securely shared and effectively managed.”

Due to the increasing pace of technological innovation, the U.S. sees data as a vital ingredient for diplomacy. An evolving global landscape, the need for data-driven insights, and the accelerated pace of technological innovation require an institutional approach to modernizing the way the U.S. Department of State uses data as a strategic asset. This Enterprise Data Strategy therefore takes a Department-wide approach to adapt to these factors over the next three years. The U.S. Department of State states that the establishment of the corporate strategy on data and the resulting initiatives will change the way the Department collectively manages and implements data in all its mandates. The Strategy is based on a Vision that provides strategic consistency and alignment for the Department’s efforts to develop data maturity and capabilities, and Goals that serve to achieve that Vision. This strategy requires the close collaboration of bureaus and offices across the Department to develop a holistic approach to building a foundation of data capabilities and assets. This initial data strategy, created by the Department to harness the full potential of data, is considered a critical step towards developing the U.S. State Department's ability to use data to inform diplomacy while maintaining the highest level of scientific and data integrity. The evolving global landscapes, the demand for data-driven insights, and technological innovation have created the need for data informed diplomacy (U.S. Department of State, 2021).

The U.S. Department of State has identified the following four goals to help move toward the Department's vision to improve data capabilities over the next three years (U.S. Department of State, 2021: 11):

“Goal 1: Cultivate a Data Culture

Goal 2: Accelerate Decisions through Analytics

Goal 3: Establish Mission-Driven Data Management

Goal 4: Enhance Enterprise Data Governance”

The U.S. Department of State announced that the first Enterprise Data Strategy implementation continued with two separate data campaigns. These data campaigns focus on a mission and management themed priority every six months. The steering theme of the first campaign is diversity, equality, inclusion and accessibility (DEIA). The DEIA campaign team created a new DEIA data policy to accelerate decision-making and increase data transparency while protecting privacy. Working with the Secretariat's Office of Diversity and Inclusion, they developed an interactive Demographic Baseline Report and dashboard that will be updated annually. The department will use this demographic baseline to help benchmark progress, identify potential barriers to equal opportunity, inform policy responses, and promote accountability for recruiting and retaining a diverse workforce. Mission-themed priority includes Strategic Competition with the People’s Republic of China (PRC). The Strategic Competitiveness campaign focused on using data to understand the nature and scope of the People’s Republic of China's global activities to better inform the Department’s strategic planning and foreign aid. To support this effort, the team developed a new suite of analytical tools, leveraged data to inform foreign aid project selection processes, and added dozens of relevant datasets to the Department’s data catalog, making them accessible to Department stakeholders and interagency. The initiative has packaged data into digestible, data-rich yet easy-to-use formats for busy policymakers. The management theme of the second campaign is cybersecurity. The cybersecurity data campaign will help the Department make extensive use of cyber data as a strategic asset to better manage cyber risk, drive analytics, increase compliance and improve security posture. The mission-themed priority is multilateralism. The multilateralism data campaign will use data to strengthen alignment with other countries on common priorities and expand coalitions to achieve U.S. interests (U.S. Department of State, 2022).

Conclusion and Recommendations

The U.S. Department of State has embarked on the path of transforming into a data-centric organization to protect the country's interests, advance its foreign policy, ensure security, and improve relations with its allies through data informed diplomacy. It has become a necessity today to benefit from data in policy making, decision making and negotiation processes in foreign relations.

Every government agency that aims to transform into a data-centric organization should first equip its internal target audience in this regard. Data diplomacy requires teamwork of data analytics experts, information and communication technology experts, and diplomats. Therefore, first of all, diplomats should be informed about how to work with and benefit from data. It is clear that quality data collection and data reporting in line with the corporate strategy will provide a significant advantage in foreign policy. For diplomats, having the ability to work with data in the digital age is of great importance to protect the country’s interests and prevent conflicts.

References           

 

American Association for the Advancement of Science (2015): “Summary of Science Diplomacy 2015: Scientific Drivers for Diplomacy”, April 29, 2015, diplomacy.aaas.org. 

Boyd, Andy, Jane Gatewood, Stuart Thorson, Timothy D. V. Dye (2019): “Data Diplomacy”, Science & Diplomacy, Vol. 8, No. 1 (May 2019), http://sciencediplomacy.org/article/2019/data-diplomacy. 

Bureau of Public Affairs (2008): “Diplomacy: The U.S. Department of State at Work”, U.S. Department of State, June 2008, https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/rls/dos/107330.htm, Accessed: 06. 10. 2022. 

Jacobson, Barbara Rosen, Katharina E Höne, Jovan Kurbalija (2018): Data Diplomacy: Updating diplomacy to the big data era, DiploFoundation, February 2018, https://www.diplomacy.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Data_Diplomacy_Report_2018.pdf, Accessed: 27. 09. 2022. 

Kuznetsov, Nikita M., Natal’ya A. Tsvetkova,(2022): “Russian data diplomacy: Goals, trends, perspectives”, RSUH/RGGU Bulletin Series, Political Science, History, International Relations, no. 1, 26-40, DOI: 10.28995/2073-6339-2022-1-26-40. 

Marcotte, Bob (2016): “‘Big Data’ generates need for ‘Data Diplomacy’”, University of Rochester, News Center, January 28, 2016, https://www.rochester.edu/newscenter/big-datageneratesneed-for-data-diplomacy/, Accessed: 05. 10. 2022.

Ndoumbe,Keira (2022): Data Diplomacy: Examining Data’s Impact As A Tool For Diplomatic Activities, Nkafu Policy Institute, February 2022, 1-4. 

Stanton, Jeffrey (2013): An Introduction to Data Science Version 3 [Online], With a Contribution By Robert W. De Graaf, Syracuse University, Google Books, Available at: https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6iefdnF22XQeVZDSkxjZ0Z5VUE/edit, Accessed: 06. 10. 2022. 

Tsvetkova, Natal’ya, Nikita M. Kuznetsov (2020): “Phenomenon of Big Data Diplomacy in World Politics”, RSUH/RGGU Bulletin Series, Political Science. History, International Relations, no. 4, 27-44, DOI: 10.28995/2073-6339-2020-4-27-44. 

U.S. Department of State (2021): “Enterprise Data Strategy: Empowering Data Informed Diplomacy”, September 2021, https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Reference-EDS-Accessible.pdf, Accessed: 27. 09. 2022.

U.S. Department of State (2022): “Implementation of Enterprise Data Strategy Takes a Mission-Driven Approach”, July 13, 2022, https://www.state.gov/implementation-of-enterprise-data-strategy-takes-a-mission-driven-approach/, Accessed: 27. 09. 2022.

 

How to Reduce Tension between Turkey and Greece through Sports Diplomacy

Dr. ASLI VAROL

The US arms support to Greece, the sale of F-16 jets, the establishment of a naval base in Alexandroupoli and the lifting of the embargoes against the Greek Cypriot Administration led to further strained relations between Turkey and Greece. Recently, the allegations that Greece had “radar lock” on Turkish jets performing mission flights in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean with the Russian-made S-300 Air Defense System increased the tensions. Turkey accused Greece of harassing F-16 jets using S-300 air defense systems stationed in Crete, while Greece denied the allegations. While the tension between the two neighboring countries did not decrease, Turkey and Greece mutually complained to each other to the European Union, the United Nations and NATO.

Sport as a Diplomatic Tool

Diplomacy is the main tool for implementing national foreign policy during peacetime. Moreover, diplomacy is a tool that can be used to communicate during conflict. The key features of diplomacy are communication and representation. Diplomacy is established as the first step to prevent or resolve conflicts. And also, diplomacy aids negotiations; protects citizens and other interests abroad; promotes economic, social, cultural and scientific exchange between states and governs foreign policy decisions (Trunkos  & Heere, 2017: 3).

The potential of sports diplomacy in the modern diplomatic environment is vast. Murray states that for sports diplomacy to become a regular, sustainable and meaningful feature of modern diplomacy, a dialogue must be initiated between theorists and practitioners in both fields (Murray, 2013: 12). 

Treating sports as a diplomacy platform, Trunkos and Heere list the most common strategic goals as follows (Trunkos & Heere, 2017: 5-6):

 

“(a) providing an unofficial reason and location for international leaders to meet and begin a dialogue; (b) providing insights into the host country and educating others about it; (c) bridging cultural and linguistic differences among nations and seeking common ground through sports; (d) creating a platform for new trade agreements or legislation; (e) creating awareness for the international relationship through sport ambassadors; (f) creating a legacy for the host country, improving its image in the world; and (g) using sport to provide legitimacy for a new nation.”

 

Sports have various functions in the field of diplomacy. It is clearly seen that sports have important duties in building and preserving peace. Sports diplomacy can go beyond the bridges established by official authorities and lead to the convergence of peoples. On the other hand, sport offers the opportunity to build a positive image and a strong reputation for both countries and political leaders in international communication.

Sport provides an informal reason and place for international leaders to come together and initiate dialogue. Sport gives insight into the host country and educates others about it. Sports are used to bridge cultural and linguistic differences between nations. Sports can be used to create a platform for new legislation or trade deals. Sports can be used to raise awareness in international relations through sports ambassadors. Sporting events can be used to create a legacy for the host country and improve its image in the world. Sport can be used to provide legitimacy for a new nation (Trunkos & Heere, 2017).

In a pluralistic, modern diplomatic environment, sport is a powerful soft power tool to positively attract “others” to the characteristics of the host country. Murray divides sports diplomacy into two categories, traditional sports diplomacy and a “new” networked sports diplomacy 2.0. Traditional sports diplomacy is sometimes used by governments to achieve foreign policy goals. Mega sport events offer multiple public diplomacy opportunities. Sporting events can create leadership summit opportunities for engagement beyond established foreign policy positions. Sports diplomacy 2.0 programs also emphasize government partnerships with non-state actors such as NGOs, IGOs, athletes and companies. In the twenty-first century, sports regimes, clubs, and individual celebrities can be thought of as powerful, non-state diplomatic actors. More and more states are implementing sports diplomacy 2.0 programs. Due to the rise of global terrorism, financial crises, overpopulation and resource scarcity, sports exchanges between nations, states and peoples should be encouraged (Murray, 2016).

The increasing interest of countries in sports diplomacy should not reduce sports diplomacy only to sports organizations. Sports diplomacy should deal with sports with various studies in line with diplomatic purposes. In this context, Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia serve as appropriate examples. In Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia, the importance of sport and its use as an appropriate tool have been recognized by government officials. This can lead to a state's reputation in the international system. In this environment, the first scholarly articles and books focusing specifically on the general introduction to sports diplomacy were published by Polish, Czech and Slovak scholars. Likewise, the first conferences, workshops and summer schools were organized in Central European universities (Zákravský, Kobierecki, Štulajter, 2021: 412).

The History of Sports Diplomacy Dates Back to Antiquity 

It is seen that sports diplomacy has an important place in addition to ad-hoc diplomacy, multilateral diplomacy and open diplomacy in ancient times. In this sense, Murray expresses the importance given to sports in the field of politics in Antiquity as follows (Murray, 2013: 12):

 

“Since antiquity, international sports has provided a symbolic arena for polities to demonstrate various types of superiority from athletic prowess to the ideology of a particular system of state. Well aware of the reach and power of the opiate of the masses, governments have long been drawn toward sports and sporting festivals.”

 In ancient Greece, the Olympic Games were actually an indirect mechanism of conflict resolution. As a conflict resolution device, the Olympic Games were less costly than sending an army to resolve a conflict, leading the Ancient Greeks to avoid the dispersal of wealth associated with violence. The gains from conflict resolution provided the ancient Greeks with much wealth and helped create other institutions that became the foundations of Western civilization. As a signal of city-state power, the Olympics had to evolve into a powerful cultural event to be effective. The Olympics served as a meeting place and provided a kind of entertainment for the participants (Allen & Lantinova, 2013). 

Sports Diplomacy and Relationship Management 

Sports diplomacy is associated with governments whose aim is to reinforce a diplomatic message through athletes. However, sports diplomacy is associated with states that use sporting events to improve their image among global peoples, reduce tensions in diplomatic relations, or test the ground for a policy change. Because sports diplomacy transcends cultural differences and creates opportunities for alternative ways to overcome hostilities, formal dialogue and human-human relations. In short, sports diplomacy unites separate nations with a love of sports (Murray, 2013: 12). It should always be considered that sport improves relations and has a mediating function. Because the facts that sport serve peaceful purposes will also prevent extremist groups from damaging inter-communal relations.                                                                                                                                

More and more diplomatic institutions are turning to sports. Trunkos and Heere state that there are four reasons for this. First, sports and athletes can strengthen and complement a nation-state's diplomacy. For example, China's re-emergence and acceptance into the international community since the early 1970s has been closely linked to international sports. The most famous example of this is when a series of favorable encounters between Chinese and American ping-pong players led to China’s reclaiming its seat on the United Nations Security Council, Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China, and the normalization of Sino-US diplomatic relations. This event is called “ping-pong diplomacy” in the diplomatic literature. Second, mega sport events can offer important public diplomacy opportunities to the host country. The right to host such an event is a confirmation of good international citizenship. In this case, if the diplomatic stance, image and message are formed appropriately and harmonized with positive sporting values, it is possible to reach and establish closeness to a large foreign public community. Third, sport is no longer a niche or insignificant institution under governments. Fourth, sports diplomacy gives governments considerable flexibility in testing the strengths or weaknesses of a diplomatic relationship beyond official policy positions (Trunkos & Heere, 2017). 

In sports diplomacy, it is necessary to take advantage of the opportunities offered by information and communication technologies in order to manage the relations between countries and societies. In this sense, sports diplomacy 2.0 should be strengthened. In addition, the development of relations between countries can be achieved through “sport ambassadors”. Sports ambassadors can be employed to contribute to the reputation of both their home country and the country of the institution they are athletes of. For this reason, “sport ambassadors” should be selected from all sports institutions of a country, regardless of whether they are amateur or professional. 

Sports Diplomacy Must Be Strengthened Between Turkey and Greece

There are various sports events that sports diplomacy works to reduce tensions between countries. For example, “cricket diplomacy” between Pakistan and India had been a step towards easing tensions between the two countries. After years of acrimony, suspicion and close war caused by nuclear weapons, the Kashmir crises and the scourge of terrorism, in March 2011, Pakistani Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gilani accepted an invitation from his Indian counterpart, Manmohan Singh, to watch the semi-final match of the Cricket World Cup (Murray, 2012).

It is possible to reduce the tension that rises from time to time between Turkey and Greece through sports diplomacy. In fact, the people of the two countries share the same history and the same culture. Although there is a political and military disagreement between Turkey and Greece, there is a cultural bond that will never break. In this context, it may be beneficial to organize friendly matches with female athletes and women’s sports teams in Istanbul and Athens in this period when relations are tense. It is necessary for the presidents of the countries and the presidents of the sports clubs to watch these matches together, in order to stay away from the corrosive political discussions. Moreover, it should be accepted that the Aegean Sea and the Aegean Islands are the common heritage of Turkey and Greece, and that culture and tourism issues should be discussed instead of arming.

References

Allen, Douglas W., Lantinova, Vera (2013): “The ancient olympics as a signal of city-state strength”, Economics of Governance, Volume 14, 23-44, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10101-012-0119-5.

Murray, Stuart (2012): “Commentary: The Two Halves of Sports-Diplomacy”, Diplomacy & Statecraft, 23: 576-592, DOI: 10.1080/09592296.2012.706544.

Murray, Stuart (2013): Moving beyond the Ping-Pong table: Sports diplomacy in the moderndiplomatic environment, PD Magazine, Winter 2013, 11-16.

Murray, Stuart (2016): “Sports Diplomacy”, The SAGE Handbook of Diplomacy, Ed. Costas M. Constantinou, Pauline Kerr, Paul Sharp, SAGE Publications, London, 617-627.

Trunkos, Judit, Bob Heere (2017): “Sport Diplomacy: A Review of How Sports Can Be Used to Improve International Relationships”, Case Studies in Sport Diplomacy, Ed. by Craig Esherick, Robert E. Baker, Steven Jackson, Michael Sam, West Virginia University, FiT Publishing,  1-16.

Zákravský, Jiří, Michał Marcin Kobierecki,Ivan Štulajter (2021): “Sports Diplomacy Research in Poland, Czechia and Slovakia. Emerging Field of Study?”, Politics in Central Europe, Vol. 17, No. 3, 399-419, DOI: 10.2478/pce-2021-0017.

The Importance of Tüpraş for Turkey's Energy Diplomacy

 Dr. ASLI VAROL

Russian energy giant Gazprom announced that natural gas delivery to Bulgaria and Poland were completely stopped on April 27, 2022, due to non-compliance with the decision to pay gas payments in rubles. This situation once again showed the importance of maintaining energy diplomacy.

Russian State-owned Gazprom announced that it will stop gas supplies to Bulgaria and Poland, which refuse to pay for deliveries in rubles. European Commission Chief Ursula von der Leyen said on Wednesday morning that Russia is using gas as “an instrument of blackmail”. She also stated that this situation was “unjustified and unacceptable” (European Commission, 2022). Of course, President Vladimir Putin's demand for ruble gas payments is Russia's response to sanctions, which include freezing hundreds of billions of dollars of Russian assets (Tsolova & Koper, 2022).

This step of Russia is seen as a tough move against the sanctions brought after the invasion of Ukraine. Following the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine war on the morning of February 24, a significant amount of US and European capital withdrew from oil and gas cooperation projects with Russia. During this period, the world's leading energy companies such as British Petroleum (BP), Norwegian National Petroleum Company (Equinor), Shell, ExxonMobil and Spanish Repsol announced that they were withdrawing from Russia.

It is a fact that there is a mutual dependence on energy in the world. Energy is a source of life in every field from daily life to heavy industry. Energy is a strategic area for countries in foreign policy and it can shape foreign policy.

Bovan, Vučenović and Perić define energy diplomacy as a growing diplomatic field aimed at ensuring energy security. According to the authors, the relationship between energy diplomacy, foreign policy and national security is complex and dynamic. Energy has entered the field of diplomacy and foreign policy as a result of its growing influence on national security and the economy (Bovan, Vučenović & Perić, 2020: 5). 

Countries should create their energy policies and energy diplomacy strategies according to the changing conditions in the world. For example, Ukraine is developing a proactive energy diplomacy strategy that faces external challenges and threats. Ukraine plays a vital role as a strategic geopolitical gas transit country for Europe (Rotar, 2018: 50).

Turkey's energy diplomacy should be sustainable and effective. Considering the geopolitical reality, crisis situations such as the Russia-Ukraine war may affect the energy sector. Energy security, control of energy resources, security of energy logistics, price increase are the main problems. States and energy companies are the leading actors in energy diplomacy. In this context, states should benefit from the expertise and competitiveness of the private sector in energy diplomacy. In times of regional crisis, such as between Russia and Ukraine, it is necessary to maintain a dialogue in the sphere of energy. When relations between states deteriorate, the private sector should take on the task of communicating.

Turkey is a transit country in energy supply for Europe. Turkey should benefit from global energy actors in diplomacy in order to achieve its goals in the field of energy, as well as its political foreign policy goals in its region. Moreover, Turkey has a strong hand in this matter. Tüpraş, which can compete with global energy companies, should represent Turkey in energy diplomacy with its experience and capacity in the field of energy. Arts patron Ömer M. Koç's Tüpraş will enable Turkey to become one of the world's giants in energy.

 

References

 

Bovan, Ana, Tamara Vučenović, Nenad Perić (2020): “Negotiating Energy Diplomacy and its Relationship with Foreign Policy and National Security”, International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Vol 10, Issue 2, 1-6. 

European Commission (2022): “Statement by Commission President von der Leyen following the announcement by Gazprom on the disruption of gas deliveries to certain EU Member States”, Brussels, 27 April 2022, 

https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/statement_22_2682.

Rotar, Nataliia (2018): “The Energy Diplomacy of Ukraine as an Effective and Powerful Tool for Improving National Energy Security”, The Copernicus Journal of Political Studies, No. 1/2018, 33–53, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/CJPS.2018.003.

 

Tsolova, Tsvetelia, Anna Koper (2022): “Europe decries 'blackmail' as Russia shuts off gas to Poland and Bulgaria”, Reuters, April 27, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/gazprom-says-it-halts-gas-supplies-poland-bulgaria-payments-row-2022-04-27/.

 

Europe’s Corporate Diplomats Must Effort to End the Russia-Ukraine War

Dr. ASLI VAROL

As the world overcomes the COVID-19 pandemic, Russia's invasion of Ukraine has emerged a new international crisis. In the early morning hours of February 24, 2022, Moscow declared its invasion of Ukraine as a special military operation. The USA, European countries and their allies responded to this invasion with sanctions against Russia. However, the effects of these sanctions on both the regional and global economy should be taken into account. The trade war, which started a few years ago between the USA and China, seems to spread to a global scale as an economic war with the Russia-Ukraine war. Here, the European region has an important role to play in reducing the tension between Russia and the USA.

In response to the ongoing war in Ukraine, we see that many European companies have made decisions regarding their business and investments in Russia. For example, Swedish Ikea announced that it will suspend operations in Russia and Belarus. British BP and Royal Dutch Shell also announced that they have decided to withdraw from the projects in Russia. In response, France's TotalEnergies said it would remain in Russia but would not invest more. Germany's Siemens also has significantly suspended its activities in Russia. Danish shipping company Maersk has temporarily suspended all container shipments to and from Russia. German automotive companies Volkswagen and BMW said they have stopped production in Russia and also suspended their exports to Russia. Deutsche Bank, on the other hand, emphasized that it has its own contingency plans instead of stopping its operations. There are also European companies that have announced that they will continue their activities in Russia. For example, Swiss watch manufacturer Swatch Group said it will continue its operations in Russia but will suspend exports.

In times of international crisis, the private sector should act proactively instead of being reactive. Representatives of private sector companies should play the role of mediator between states, instead of reducing employment opportunities and economic welfare in a country and increasing the crisis. In this context, the top managers of multinational companies, as corporate diplomats, must make an effort to reduce the tension in the country where there is a crisis or conflict. Especially Europe, which has experienced the destruction of the Second World War, must play a role in reducing the tension between Russia and the USA. Corporate diplomacy must be activated when interstate diplomacy cannot find a solution.

Efforts to isolate Russia from the world through sanctions and thus to end the war make it difficult to maintain trade and economic relations. Furthermore, Russia's response to technology sanctions by planning to shut down the Internet to the outside world should be taken into account. In this period, where the state diplomacy has not come a long way for now, private sector companies must act to restore international relations instead of resorting to sanctions.

Chairman of the board, CEO and various employees of the companies operate as diplomats in the global arena. Corporate diplomats work internationally on behalf of their companies (Varol, 2020). Senior managers of European companies must establish a dialogue with the Russian government, Russian companies and non-governmental organizations.

Corporate diplomats aim to help multinational corporations meet the new challenges emerging in the world and at the same time achieve the company's goals in the market, government and social context. Corporate diplomats are responsible for relations with governments and organized civil society, as well as international business strategy and implementation (Sarfati, 2012: 143). Corporate diplomats can also effectively use all the resources necessary to establish strategic communication with the foreign public (Dašić, 2011: 23).

In summary, Europe must act as a bridge between the USA, its allies and Russia. In this context, corporate diplomats from European companies must play an active role in ending the Russia-Ukraine war, and support the states in preparing the appropriate ground for the company to overcome the political uncertainties affecting its relations with its stakeholders.

 

References

Dašić, David Đ.: “Global Corporations and Diplomacy”, International Journal of Economics & Law, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2011, 21-26.

Sarfati, Gilberto: “Corporate diplomats: global managers of 21st century”, Revista de Economia & Relações Internacionais, Vol.11 (21), 2012, 137-148.

Varol, Aslı: Kurumsal Diplomasi, Cinius, Istanbul, 2020.

 

 

NFT: A New Tool for Cultural Diplomacy

 Dr. ASLI VAROL

Cultural diplomacy, in its most general definition, is the promotion of a country's cultural items abroad. Although cultural diplomacy is a field of public diplomacy, today it has expanded its borders with the participation of non-state actors in the diplomacy process. In this context, businesses, cultural institutions, NGOs, think tanks, universities, cultural communities, artists and art communities, digital communities and the media are actors of cultural diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy strengths the soft power of a country and mediates the establishment of ties between countries and societies with different cultures. With the expanding range of actors, state and non-state actors will benefit effectively from the innovations brought by digitalization.

Strengthening Soft Power 

Joseph Nye points out that the soft power of a country rests primarily on three resources. These resources are the culture, political values and foreign policies of that country (Nye, 2008: 96; Nye, 2009). Nye expresses culture as a set of practices that create meaning for a society and says that it has many manifestations. In this context, a country may have high culture appealing to the elite such as literature, art and education, and popular culture focused on mass entertainment (Nye, 2008: 96).

Examples of soft power and cultural diplomacy existed long before today. For example, it is known that after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the French government sought to restore the nation's shattered prestige by promoting its language and literature through the Alliance Francaise, created in 1883 (Nye, 2008: 96). Berridge and James state that cultural diplomacy is the promotion abroad of a state’s cultural achievements. In countries such as France and England, cultural diplomacy is mostly the promotion of their languages.  In cultural diplomacy, countries send cultural attachés to embassies. And also, private organizations closely associated with the diplomatic service, such as the British Council, are sometimes employed. Such organizations have their own offices and libraries in major foreign cities. Cultural diplomacy is broadly defined to include advertising achievements in the arts, humanities, social sciences, science and technology. Cultural diplomacy places special emphasis on developing ties between parallel institutions at home and abroad, for example between local and foreign universities (Berridge & James, 2003: 62).

Tokenization of Cultural Heritage Objects

Digitization has also revolutionized the art world. The emergence of digital artworks and the growth of the NFT (Non-fungible token) market has turned the art world's attention to crypto artworks. Using blockchain technology, NFTs turn digital artworks into registerable and tradable assets. However, NFTs have unique identities that no token can copy; they cannot be divided and reproduced. In short, NFT can be defined as a unit of data on the blockchain that represents ownership of a unique digital item such as a sound file, text or image. The interest in NFT works of art paves the way for the cultural elements of the countries to be present in the digital world by tokenizing. In this context, NFTs are emerging as new tools in cultural diplomacy.

In South Korea, the Kansong Art and Culture Foundation planned to tokenize the National Treasure No. 70 Hunminjeongeum Haerye to raise funds for the foundation. The Kansong Art and Culture Foundation operates the country's first private museum, the Kansong Art Museum, which was founded in 1938. The 33-page book from the Joseon period details the proclamation of Hangeul, the Korean writing system, and the uses of the letters. Also named Memory of the World by UNESCO, the copy is recognized as an invaluable piece of cultural heritage that demonstrates why King Sejong of Joseon created the Korean writing system for humans (Yuna, 2021a). In late July 2021, the Kansong Foundation tokenized National Treasure No. 70 Hunminjeongeum Haerye to raise funds to operate the foundation. Thus, the book was tokenized as NFT and became the first national treasure to be traded on a blockchain platform (Yuna, 2021b).

UAE has prepared the first NFT stamps in the region to promote its national identity on the global platform. To commemorate the UAE's National Day 2021, Emirates Post Group pioneered the printing of postage stamps as the first company in the region to issue NFT stamps. Four different NFT stamps were issued to coincide with the country's Golden Jubilee 2021 celebration. Each of these four different NFT stamps carries a distinct design that focuses on the UAE national theme. UAE envisioned these innovative NFT stamps to have a digital twin on the blockchain and be sold as digital collectibles linked to their physical stamp counterpart (Office of Public and Cultural Diplomacy, 2021).

As it is understood, presenting the NFT version of a country's cultural heritage and promoting a country's national identity through NFT are important steps for cultural diplomacy in the digitalized and globalized world.

 

References

Berridge, G.R., Alan James (2003): A Dictionary of Diplomacy, Second Edition, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Nye, Joseph S., Jr. (2008): “Public Diplomacy and Soft Power”, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616, March 2008, 94-109.

Nye, Joseph S., Jr. (2009): “Get Smart Combining Hard and Soft Power”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 88, No. 4 (July/August 2009), Published by: Council on Foreign Relations, 160-163.

Office of Public and Cultural Diplomacy (2021): “Emirates Post unveils region’s first NFT Stamp”, 29 November 2021, UAE, https://opcd.ae/emirates-post-unveils-regions-first-nft-stamp/.

Yuna, Park (2021a): “Kansong Art and Culture Foundation to tokenize national treasure as NFT”, Jul 22, 2021, The Korea Herald, http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20210722000897.

Yuna, Park (2021b): “Art Center Nabi, Kansong Foundation launches heritage NFT Project”,  Aug 7, 2021, The Korea Herald, http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20210805000824.